Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Evidence Based Trauma Treatment for Children and Youth

  • Published:
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Exposure to traumatic events and experiences does not discriminate against age, gender or race. Though not all children and youth exposed to trauma experience difficulty, many experience significant adverse effects that impede their cognitive, physical, psychological, affective, interpersonal and behavioural functioning The focus of this paper is to review the literature on the effects and needs of children and youth exposed to traumatic events, analyze current evidence based treatments, and explore emerging treatment modalities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackerman, P. T., Newton, J. E., McPherson, W. B., Jones, J. G., & Dykman, R. A. (1998). Prevelance of post traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric diagnoses in three groups of abused children (sexual, physical, and both). Child Abuse and Neglect, 22(8), 759–774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, A., Larsson, B., & Sundelin-Wahlsten, V. (2007). EMDR treatment for children with PTSD: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 61(5), 349–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Amir, N., Coles, M. E., & Foa, E. B. (2002). Automatic and strategic activation and inhibition of threat-relevant information in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 645–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brady, K. T., Killeen, T. K., Brewerton, T., & Lucerini, S. (2000). Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 22–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Dillworth, T. M., & Marlatt, G. (2007). Short communication: The role of thought suppression in the relationship between mindfulness meditation and alcohol use. Addictive Behaviors, 32(10), 2324–2328. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.025.

  • Chapman, L., Morabito, D., Ladakakos, C., Schreier, H., & Knudson, M. M. (2001). The effectiveness of art therapy interventions in reducing post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in pediatric trauma patients. Art Therapy, 18(2), 100–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Nakashima, J., & Carlson, J. G. (2002). Brief treatment for elementary school children with disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A field study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(1), 99–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Deblinger, E., Mannarino, A. P., & Steer, R. (2004). A multi-site, randomized controlled trial for children with abuse-related PTSD symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(4), 393–402.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (1996). A treatment outcome study for sexually abused preschool children: Initial findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(1), 42–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (2008). Trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy for children and parents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 13(4), 158–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (2010). Psychotherapeutic options for traumatized children. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 22(5), 605–609.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Kliethermes, M., & Murray, L. A. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36(6), 528–541.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., et al. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtois, C. A. (2008). Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychological Trauma Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 1, 86–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cukor, J., Spitalnick, J., Difede, J., Rizzo, A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2009). Emerging treatments for PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 715–726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., & Thomas, L. A. (2003). Biologic findings of post-traumatic stress disorder and child maltreatment. Current Psychiatry Reports, 5(2), 108–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deblinger, E., Lippmann, J., & Steer, R. (1996). Sexually abused children suffering posttraumatic stress symptoms: Initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreatment, 1(4), 310–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deblinger, E., Mannarino, A. P., Cohen, J. A., Runyon, M. K., & Steer, R. A. (2011). Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for children: Impact of the trauma narrative and treatment length. Depression and Anxiety, 28(1), 67–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Descilo, T., Vedamurtachar, A., Gerbarg, P. L., Nagaraja, D., Gangadhar, B. N., Damodaran, B., et al. (2010). Effects of a yoga breathe intervention alone and in combination with an exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in survivors of the 2004 South-East Asia tsunami. Acta PsychiatricaScandinavica, 121(4), 289–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dube, S. R., Anda, R. F., Whitfield, C. L., Brown, D. W., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., et al. (2005). Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse by gender of victim. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5), 430–438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, D., Sharma, R., Chaudhry, S., & Turner, J. (2009). Trauma-sensitive yoga: Principles, practice, and research. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 19(1), 123–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R., & Vengrober, A. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder in infants and young children exposed to war-related trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(7), 645–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Chrestman, K. R., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2009). Prolonged exposure therapy for adolescents with PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. D., Courtois, C. A., Steele, K., van der Hart, O., & Mijenhuis, E. R. (2005). Treatment of complex posttraumatic self-dysregulation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 437–447.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gersch, I., & Sao Joao Goncalves, S. (2006). Creative arts therapies and educational psychology: Let’s get together. International Journal of Art Therapy, 11(1), 22–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, J. S., Staples, J. K., Blyta, A., & Bytyqi, M. (2004). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in postwar Kosovo high school students using mind–body skills groups: A pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(2), 143–147.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granath, J., Ingvarsson, S., von Thiele, U., & Lundberg, U. (2006). Stress management: A randomized study of cognitive behavioural therapy and yoga. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 35(1), 3–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gururaja, D., Harano, K., Toyotake, I., & Kobayashi, H. (2011). Effect of yoga on mental health: Comparative study between young and senior subjects in Japan. International Journal of Yoga, 4(1), 7–12.

  • Habib, M., Labruna, V., & Newman, J. (2013). Complex histories and complex presentations: Implementation of a manually-guided group treatment for traumatized adolescents. Journal of family violence, 28(7), 717–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harmon, R. J., & Riggs, P. D. (1996). Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1247–1249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A syndrome in survivors of prolonged and repeated trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5(3), 377–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, J., Realmuto, G. M., Northwood, A. K., & Masten, A. S. (1995). Comorbidity of psychiatric diagnoses with posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of childhood trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1167–1173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaberghaderi, N., Greenwald, R., Rubin, A., Zand, S. O., & Dolatabadi, S. (2004). A comparison of CBT and EMDR for sexually-abused Iranian girls. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 11(5), 358–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, P. S., Stevens, P. J., & Kenny, D. T. (2012). Respiratory patterns in students enrolled in schools for disruptive behaviour before, during, and after Yoga Nidra relaxation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(4), 667–681.

  • Keeshin, B. R., & Strawn, J. R. (2012). Treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A review of current evidence. Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology News, 17(2), 5–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khalsa, S. B. S., Shorter, S. M., Cope, S., Wyshak, G., & Sklar, E. (2009). Yoga ameliorates performance, anxiety, and mood disturbance in young professional musicians. Applied Psychophysiology And Biofeedback, 34(4), 279–289.

  • Kowalik, J., Weller, J., Venter, J., & Drachman, D. (2011). Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(3), 405–413.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, C. C., Simons, A. D., Nguyen, L. J., Murakami, J. L., Reid, M. W., Silva, S. G., et al. (2010). Impact of childhood trauma on treatment outcome in the treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry y, 49(2), 132–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyshak-Stelzer, F., Singer, P., Patricia, S. J., & Chemtob, C. M. (2007). Art therapy for adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A pilot study. Art Therapy, 24(4), 163–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malchiodi, C. A. (2001). Using drawing as intervention with traumatized children. Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions, 1(1), 21–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannarino, A. P., Cohen, J. A., Deblinger, E., Runyon, M. K., & Steer, R. A. (2012). Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for children sustained impact of treatment 6 and 12 months later. Child Maltreatment, 17(3), 231–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, J. (2001). Introduction. In J. Murphy (Ed.), Art therapy with young survivors of sexual abuse: Lost for words (pp. 1–15). Hove, East Sussex: Brunner-Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Najjar, F., Weller, R. A., Weisbrot, J., & Weller, E. B. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder and its treatment in children and adolescents. Current Psychiatry Reports, 10(2), 104–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikulina, V., Hergenrother, J. M., Brown, E. J., Doyle, M. E., Filton, B. J., & Carson, G. S. (2008). From efficacy to effectiveness: The trajectory of the treatment literature for children with PTSD. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 8(8), 1233–1246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NREPP: SAMHSA’s National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices. (2008). Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT). Retrieved from http://nrepp.samhsa.gov/ViewIntervention.aspx?id=135.

  • Pretorius, G., & Pfeifer, N. (2010). Group art therapy with sexually abused girls. South African Journal of Psychology, 40(1), 63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, F. W. (2009). The impact of trauma on child development. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 57(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rathus, J. H., & Miller, A. L. (2002). Dialectical behavior therapy adapted for suicidal adolescents. Suicide and Life-threatening Behavior, 32(2), 146–157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodenburg, R., Benjamin, A., de Roos, C., Meijer, A. M., & Stams, G. J. (2009). Efficacy of EMDR in children: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(7), 599–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarid, O., & Huss, E. (2010). Trauma and acute stress disorder: A comparison between cognitive behavioral intervention and art therapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 37(1), 8–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saul, A. L., Grant, K. E., & Carter, J. S. (2008). Post-traumatic reactions in adolescents: How well do the DSM-IV PTSD criteria fit the real life experience of trauma exposed youth? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(6), 915–925.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, E. J., & Saunders, J. A. (2000). Evaluating the effectiveness of art therapy through a quantitative, outcomes-focused study. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 27(2), 99–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheck, M. M., Schaeffer, J. A., & Gillette, C. (1998). Brief psychological intervention with traumatized young women: The efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(1), 25–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seedat, S., Lockhat, R., Kaminer, D., Zungu-Dirwayi, N., & Stein, D. J. (2001). An open trial of citalopram in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(1), 21–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seedat, S., Stein, D. J., Ziervogel, C., Middleton, T., Kaminer, D., Emsley, R. A., et al. (2002). Comparison of response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in children, adolescents, and adults with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 12(1), 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2(2), 199–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., Ortiz, C. D., Viswesvaran, C., Burns, B. J., Kolko, D. J., Putnam, F. W., et al. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents exposed to traumatic events. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 156–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spinazzola, J., Rhodes, A. M., Emerson, D., Earle, E., & Monroe, K. (2011). Application of yoga in residential treatment of traumatized youth. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 17(6), 431–444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steil, R., Dyer, A., Priebe, K., Kleindienst, N., & Bohus, M. (2011). Dialectical behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse: A pilot study of an intensive residential treatment program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(1), 102–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stronach-Buschel, B. (1990). Trauma, children, and art. American Journal of Art Therapy, 29(2), 48–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., Patterson, B., & Boyle, M. H. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder in Canada. CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics, 14, 171–181.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A. (2003). Neurobiology of childhood trauma and abuse. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 12, 293–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A. (2006). Clinical implications of neuroscience research in PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 277–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A., Pelcovitz, D., Roth, S., & Mandel, F. S. (1996). Dissociation, somatization, and affect dysregulation: The complexity of adaption to trauma. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 83–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, D. A., Schneider, A., & Lyons, J. S. (2009). Evidence-based treatments for trauma among culturally diverse foster care youth: Treatment retention and outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(11), 1199–1205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L. S. (2009). Yoga for children. Pediatric Nursing, 35(5), 277–295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. A., Becker, L. A., & Tinker, R. H. (1997). Fifteen-month follow-up of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder and psychological trauma. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 1047.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Children’s Centre Thunder Bay, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada

    Angela Racco

  2. School of Social Work, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Rd., Thunder Bay, ON, P7B 5E1, Canada

    Jo-Ann Vis

Authors
  1. Angela Racco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jo-Ann Vis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jo-Ann Vis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Racco, A., Vis, JA. Evidence Based Trauma Treatment for Children and Youth. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 32, 121–129 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-014-0347-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-014-0347-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation